At PML we aim to improve the security of food resources by understanding the drivers of food-webs supporting them; by striving to understand how environmental and climate change impact these living resources and their distribution; by modelling marine productivity and ecosystems to drive fisheries models investigating different climates and management strategies; by understanding that food resource exploitation occurs within a diversity of other marine resource uses, and that managing these often conflicting interests requires an understanding the structure of their associated economy. Aquaculture or farming of both shellfish and finfish is a huge global industry which will likely have to expand to meet future needs. Our research can help to better understand how aquaculture interacts with the changing surrounding environment and how it may be affected by climate and other human-induced changes. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing is also causing a humanitarian and ecological crisis with current rates of fishing driving several species towards extinction whilst jeopardizing the livelihoods of artisanal fishing communities. We are using the latest satellite tracking technology to develop robust methodologies to detect and track vessels engaged in illegal fishing and dumping activities, monitor pollution from these vessels and to develop indicators to monitor local issues under the UN Sustainable Development Goal – Life Under Water. By engaging with local communities, managers, and international policy makers, we can tailor these and other science tools to support the development of solutions underpinning food security. Our work will provide the scientific background and monitoring capabilities for greater transparency and sustainable management of fisheries to help avoid the irreversible depletion of fish stocks, thus enhancing food and economic security whilst maintaining the health of our ocean.

PML scientists are studying the effects of invasive species on local ecosystems and developing modelling tools to assess the likelihood of success of future invasions and estimate the potential impact on ecosystem structure and biodiversity. Untreated ballast water is one of the major sources of introduced species. From September 2017 ships will be required to manage their ballast water to remove, render harmless or avoid the uptake or discharge of aquatic organisms as the International Maritime Organization's Ballast Water Convention comes into force. Through our trading subsidiary PML Applications Ltd we are enabling shipping companies to choose, operate and test ballast water management systems to minimize introductions of non-native species and ensure compliance with regulations. PML Applications Ltd also offer biofouling management services including the development and testing of antifouling technologies to reduce species introductions.

We are using our expertise to measure and investigate biodiversity across a range of biological scales, and explore the ecological processes and interactions that support biologically diverse and productive marine ecosystems. This will enable us to understand how and why marine ecosystems change through space and time and what drives their resilience or sensitivity to environmental stress. Our research is also expanding understanding of the links between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and the huge range of services and benefits that we derive from marine ecosystems, ranging from food provision to climate regulation and recreational opportunities. Before we can identify the impact of human activities on marine ecosystems we first need to appreciate the extent to which marine biodiversity, community structure and ecosystem processes vary naturally through space and time. PML scientists are expanding this knowledge base which will increase our ability to predict and ameliorate the consequences of human impacts on the marine environment and potentially help to incorporate the economic value of biodiversity into mainstream decision-making.

Our activities are centred on the remote sensing of the Earth’s ocean and atmosphere, whilst not ignoring the intimate connections between the ocean, the atmosphere and terrestrial, estuarine and lacustrine environments. We have a focus on several research areas: •Phytoplankton dynamics and ocean colour •Validation of Earth observation data •Exploitation of Earth observation data •Provision of EO services to NERC and European agencies Our Earth Observation group enjoys a global reputation and has a proven track record in both pure and applied Earth observation science, and comprises experts in many complementary fields including remote-sensing, physics, meteorology, engineering, data visualisation and computing. PML also develops applications to address environmental questions, provide services for others and is working to commercialise its research via PML Applications Ltd. With a flexible approach to problem solving, scientific investigation and interpretation, and a willingness to share its expertise and to work co-operatively world-wide our Earth Observation group is a partner in a multitude of national and international projects, latterly with the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Copernicus Programme, as well as NERC, BBSRC and Defra research programmes.

Carbon (dioxide) Capture and Storage (CCS) is used as a mitigation strategy for addressing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. We are working to deliver new approaches, methodologies and tools for the safe and efficient operation of offshore storage sites.

Our long and internationally recognized track record in biogeochemical cycling aims to quantify key processes in the cycling of life sustaining elements in the upper ocean and coastal seas. We use an interdisciplinary approach to study the cycling of carbon and nutrients at the interface of biology, chemistry and physics from the sea-surface to the sea-floor. We investigate processes that transform carbon and nutrients as these are transported from land to sea and across the sea-air interface. Recent research has concentrated on the pathways, reactions and transformations of nitrogen, carbon and sulphur through the marine biogeochemical system. Particular highlights have been: quantifying ocean acidification across the Atlantic Ocean over the last 20 years; quantifying the impacts of ocean acidification on biogeochemical cycles; quantifying the impacts of multiple stressors upon micro-organisms in the surface ocean, and investigating the impact of variable ratios of micro-nutrients (e.g. iron and zinc) to macro-nutrients (e.g. nitrate and phosphate) on ocean productivity. We are also investigating the cycling of organic compounds, and our research in this area has focused on the large and complex dissolved organic fraction within seawater and its role in providing microbes with energy, nitrogen and sulphur. Until recently our understanding of the sources, sinks and reaction pathways of ubiquitous organic compounds, such as methanol, osmolytes containing nitrogen, acetone and acetaldehyde was very limited. However, research campaigns studying seasonal cycles and ocean basin variability have allowed us to start unravelling their significance in meeting organic carbon requirements and supporting microbial metabolic processes.

PML scientists are at the forefront of developing techniques to monitor, assess bioavailability and investigate the effects of marine microplastics on marine organisms and ecosystems. PML scientists have contributed comprehensive evidence to the UK House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee's inquiry into "Microplastics and the Marine Environment" and provided input into the Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POSTNote) on "Marine Microplastic Pollution". One of PML's scientists, Dr Penelope Lindeque gave a presentation to the Parliamentary and Scientific Committee on "The problem of microplastics in our Marine Environment?" to raise awareness of the threat that microplastics pose to the marine environment. The Committee informs members of the Houses of Parliament, scientific bodies, industry and academia on issues where science and politics meet. It also demonstrates the relevance of scientific and technological developments on matters of public interest and to the development of national policy. The UK government has now proposed a ban on microbeads in personal care products

Comprising some of the longest, most comprehensive observations of the coastal and open-shelf ecosystems in Europe Plymouth Marine Laboratory (PML) maintains the Western Channel Observatory (WCO) in the Western English Channel. WCO is an oceanographic time-series and marine biodiversity reference site in the Western English Channel. In situ measurements are undertaken weekly at coastal station L4 and fortnightly at open shelf station E1 using the research vessels of the Plymouth Marine Laboratory and the Marine Biological Association. These measurements are complemented by PML's recognised excellence in ecosystem modelling and satellite remote sensing science. By integrating these different observational disciplines we can begin to disentangle the complexity of the marine ecosystem.

PML scientists have been at the forefront of developing the science of ocean acidification and pivotal in placing the issues surrounding the science firmly onto the international agenda. We are working to advance understanding of ocean acidification, from studies of how the chemistry of the ocean is changing to how marine organisms, biodiversity and ecosystems respond to ocean acidification, thus improving knowledge of their resistance or susceptibility to acidification, to help inform future management practices. A key finding has been that the impact of ocean acidification is strongly dependent on interaction with other stressors associated with global change, notably temperature increases and we have shown that ocean acidification is having a marked effect upon ocean chemistry, most notably the nitrogen cycle and production of climate-relevant trace gases such as DMS and halocarbons. We are also developing techniques to assess ocean acidification using satellites, which will enable monitoring on a global scale with a relatively low-cost when compared to in situ measurements. Our research has raised the profile of ocean acidification and informed policy at an international level and has contributed to discussions at several major events including several UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, including providing input to the 2015 Paris agreement. At a national level, we gave extensive written and oral evidence to the recent UK parliamentary inquiry on ocean acidification. PML also leads the European hub of the Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network.

Our research focuses on gases that exchange between the ocean and atmosphere. These include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, dimethyl sulphide and ammonia. These compounds are important for our climate because they are either greenhouse gases or influence the production and growth of particles in the atmosphere that reflect the sun’s radiation away from the Earth’s surface. We also study a range of volatile organic compounds such as methanol and acetone, which influence the atmosphere’s ability to process and remove pollutants. These gases are present at extremely low concentrations and we have pioneered methodologies and analytical techniques to accurately measure their concentration and flux. We use a combination of coastal and open ocean field experiments and laboratory studies to identify and quantify the mechanisms controlling the production and consumption of gases within the surface ocean. We recently established the Penlee Point Atmospheric Observatory at the entrance to Plymouth Sound. The observatory is an ideal platform for us to develop new monitoring techniques and to study the interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere. Our work helps to improve understanding of the role that the oceans play in the Earth system. We use our data within models to understand how the air-sea fluxes of gases might change in response to various future scenarios including changes in marine biota, ocean acidification, warming and other stressors.

We are internationally renowned for our expertise in modelling the marine environment and we host one of the largest and most experienced marine ecosystem modelling groups in the world. Our models enable us to gain a greater understanding of the dynamics and potential change of marine processes and systems, and we continually refine and build new models to address the emerging challenges facing the global ocean and society that depends upon it. There are increasing calls from policy makers and ocean users to make projections of how the ocean may change and in turn affect the resources the ocean provides. Combining ecological, physical and chemical understanding into dynamic models of the ocean provides us with tools with which we can assess the vulnerabilities and opportunities of marine systems and promote good management. We work at a range of scales encapsulating global earth-system models, regional seas and local systems such as estuaries and bays. Our research covers issues from climate change and ocean acidification, including mitigation to offshore energy, aquaculture, fisheries and good environmental status.

Millions of people across the globe rely on marine and coastal ecosystems for food, employment and their general well-being. However, the marine environment is under immense pressure from the multiple, and often conflicting, needs of the people that use it. Marine spatial planning considers all the potential users of the marine environment and the consequences of their actions in order to utilize marine resources in a coordinated and sustainable manner. We support marine spatial planning through a wide range of activities, from understanding where living resources such as fished species are and where they will be in the future; by understanding the resilience of the distribution of these resources to environmental and climate change; by evaluating ecosystem services and benefits and the social impacts of marine activities; by use of Earth Observation; and by modelling the impacts of engineering works on the marine environment. In this way, we help identify key areas requiring co-location of uses and their management, such as providing advice on the positioning of important areas for Marine Conservation and renewable energy infrastructure.

PML scientists are at the forefront of developing techniques to quantify the value of benefits and services provided by the marine environment and are developing tools to understand the risks and trade-offs of developing the blue economy. This requires an interdisciplinary approach utilising our expertise in a wide range of fields from economics and social science to ecology and computer modelling. Our research is used by policy makers and environmental managers worldwide in developing marine management strategies, to ensure sustainable use of the marine environment and responsible ocean stewardship. We have contributed to several high profile studies including the UK National Ecosystem Assessment and have participated in several projects which conducted ecosystem service valuations. We are committed to sharing this knowledge and approach and recently led a workshop on Ecosystem Service Valuation for Coastal Managers which formed the basis of a guide to support the integration of ecosystem services into the management of coastal areas.

At PML we are constantly striving to improve and develop technologies for monitoring the marine environment, to further our understanding of how it functions, in order to be able to predict responses to future environmental change and management options. We are making progress in the technological transition towards autonomous measurements and maintain two autonomous buoys at long-term stations in the western English Channel, which are also used as a platform to test and develop new technologies. Our aim is to produce an Automated Robotic Ecosystem Observatory, consisting of a surface buoy with profiling capability; an Environmental Sample Processor for real-time DNA analysis and Chemical Sediment Imager for seafloor biogeochemistry. PML is a leader in the development of satellite applications for monitoring the marine environment, ranging from detection of illegal fishing vessels, to early detection of harmful algal blooms to protect aquaculture sites to identifying key hotspots of pelagic diversity to inform the planning process. We are also trying to unlock the biotechnology potential of marine resources in applications that may be useful to society, ranging from the production of biofuels from algae to the development of a vortex bioreactor for sanitation applications in the developing world. PML are also working to develop solutions for climate change mitigation through Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage and to assess the potential impacts of marine renewable energy.

In order to underpin the sustainable and profitable development of the aquaculture industry we are working to provide novel management tools and monitoring systems by bringing together our advanced modelling capabilities, satellite observation data, biofouling and socio-economic expertise. These tools will account for increasing environmental change such as changes in temperature, storminess, wind and wave exposure, harmful algal blooms and other impacts from changes in carbon and nutrient cycling that are affecting the industry and will ultimately enable assessments of capacity and resilience to change. The knowledge and resulting outputs from our work will enable those who work within aquaculture to gain a more in-depth understanding in relation to various environmental factors, facilitating better decision making for future sustainability, risk mitigation and compliance with regulatory requirements.

PML is committed to capacity building by sharing knowledge, challenges and solutions to help train the next generation of marine scientists and ensure a sustainable future for our global ocean. We are working to help strengthen the skills, competencies and abilities of marine scientists, particularly in developing societies through a suite of projects and partnerships. This involves training courses and workshops, development of networks, partnerships and infrastructure and production of educational resources such as Massive Online Open Courses (MOOCs). We are dedicated to training the next generation of marine scientists through the supervision of graduate and postgraduate students and were delighted to welcome our first two Modern Apprentices in 2016. Through the delivery of our Science Plan we are increasing scientific knowledge and developing research capacity to contribute to several of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), in particular SDG14 which looks to "conserve and sustainable use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development". Making a difference One of our recent successes was securing funding from the Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF) for the Blue Communities project which will help to build long-term research capability for marine planning in East and South-East Asia. This will support local coastal communities which depend upon healthy and diverse marine ecosystems for food, livelihoods, their health and well-being.

Crossing a range of ecosystems over 13,500 km the annual Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT) is an exceptional vehicle for international scientific collaboration. To date, 223 scientists from over 60 institutes in 18 countries have participated and produced 220 scientific papers and 75 PhD studies. AMT science is co-ordinated and led by PML in collaboration with NOC as a key part of UK National Capability.

Currently there is limited evidence available as to the local and regional impact of offshore and tidal installations and we are working to develop methods and techniques to assess these changes. We are investigating new approaches to monitor marine life and assess the socio-economic impacts of renewable energy structures and have used the mathematical model FVCOM to assess and forecast the impacts of these structures on scales from a single turbine to an entire shelf sea. Using our model we have demonstrated that although the effects of a single turbine are small, cumulatively the impacts of multiple installations can disrupt the flow of water, potentially altering marine ecosystems, and even the heights of tides. This can disrupt the benefits we derive from a healthy marine environment where even small changes to the tides can have damaging consequences for coastal habitats and flooding risks, particularly in conjunction with the changes already seen as a result of climate change. In order to examine the wider costs, benefits and trade-offs of marine renewable energy, we have proposed and tested methods for holistic assessment of the impacts of tidal barrages and offshore wind farms on ecosystem services. Our environmental economists have also determined monetary values for the effects of these technologies on habitats, species and the seascape. We have further examined how the benefits of offshore wind farms could be maximized through co-location with commercial and recreational fishing activities. With the prospect of commercially viable tidal energy coming ever closer, we are examining public perceptions, the role of small scale and community-led initiatives, and the implications of tidal developments for regional economies.

PML’s Single Cell genomics facility features the world’s fastest High-Speed Atomic Force Microscope (HS-AFM). The Mk4 system, developed by GW4+ partners at Bristol University and Bristol NanoDynamics, is capable of recording at up to 24 million pixels per second and can carry out over a years’ worth of conventional AFM imaging in just a few hours. Providing nanometre resolution for imaging millimetre sized areas or real-time videos of dynamic nano or micro scale structures or surface processes, the HS-AFM will revolutionise the study of environmental organisms. Making use of newly-discovered physics, our contact mode high-speed atomic force microscope (HS-AFM) is the fastest in the world by several orders of magnitude. The HS-AFM moves the sample in a raster pattern and engages a sharp tip with the surface to map sample topography with nanometre lateral and sub-atomic height resolution over millimetre-sized areas. The tip can be thought of as a finger passing across a surface, able to map both the height of the surface and the local stiffness, thermal and electrical properties at the same time. The microscope doesn't require either the sample to be conductive or a vacuum to operate; indeed, it is able to image samples in gaseous and liquid environments.

PML has been operating two data buoys in the western English Channel (at stations L4 and E1) since 1999. The L4 buoy is equipped with an array of sensors to measure both atmospheric and marine parameters. Data are collected hourly and then transmitted back to PML by satellite in near real-time which enables us to examine short duration events such as algal blooms and intrusions of riverine discharge which traditional sampling methods are unable to detect. In 2013 a new buoy was deployed at station E1. The mooring is a collaboration between PML and the UK Met Office, sharing expertise to deliver a state-of-the-art multi-user platform. The L4 buoy is available for use as a platform for technological development and making PML well placed to embrace the new era of increased automation in long-term observation programmes. PML’s aspiration is to develop an Automated Robotic Ecosystem Observatory, consisting of a surface buoy with profiling capability; an Environmental Sample Processor integrating real time DNA analysis using a range of detection chemistries and a Chemical Sediment Profiling Imager for seafloor biogeochemistry.

Our two vessels, the Plymouth Quest and PML Explorer, support PML’s research and long-term monitoring activities, including the Western Channel Observatory. The Plymouth Quest is able to operate in coastal and offshore regions and is able to spend up to 5 days at sea. It is equipped with facilities for collecting a wide range of biological, chemical and physical measurements and boasts a suite of underway sensors for autonomous measurements. •Length: 21.5m, draught: 3.02m •Maritime and Coastguard Agency Category 2 workboat, able to operate up to 60 miles from a safe haven •Capacity of 12 passengers plus crew during the day or 6 overnight berths •Equipped with trawl and sweeping winches, an A frame, net drum, 10 tonne hydraulic crane and hydraulic stern gate The PML Explorer, provides a perfect working platform, as well as a 'rapid response' capability to enhance our research in estuarine and coastal waters. •Maritime and Coastguard Agency code 3R vessel: Rigid Inflatable Boat, length: 6.8m •Seagoing capability of up to 20 miles offshore •Carrying capacity of up to 6 personnel •Twin 90hp Suzuki engines, with twin fuel tanks for up to 8 hours at sea •Navigation system with echosounder •12v power supply for scientific equipment •Capability to deploy CTDs and a variety of messenger triggered water bottles

The Penlee Point Atmospheric Observatory (PPAO) was established by PML in 2014 for long-term observations of ocean-atmosphere interaction and forms part of the Western Channel Observatory. The Penlee Point Atmospheric Observatory (PPAO) receives atmospheric input from the north-west, across the Tamar Estuary from sources in Northern Europe and local shipping, and the open, less polluted Atlantic Ocean to the south-west. This allows us to quantify the impact of anthropogenic activity, such as emissions from ships, on coastal environments as well as the influence of the sea on nearby land. The PPAO takes continuous measurements of several gases in the air including concentrations of sulphur dioxide, ozone, carbon dioxide and methane, as well as aerosols, trace metals and organics. The PPAO facilitates quantification of air-sea gas transport by using state-of-the-art eddy covariance techniques; it is very suitable for long-term, high temporal resolution measurements of air-sea exchange in shelf regions. Additionally the PPAO has proven very useful in testing and comparing instruments designed to measure fluxes of carbon dioxide and methane terrestrially and assess their suitability for use in obtaining air-sea flux measurements.

The mesocosm facility enables scientists to conduct research in a controlled aquatic environment which closely simulates natural conditions. The environment can then be modified to investigate how organisms or communities may react to potential future conditions, such as elevated temperatures, ocean acidification or hypoxia. Using this approach, scientists can take certain factors from "the real world" into account with their experimental design and results, whilst maintaining the ability to manipulate a range of environmental factors, such as salinity, pH, temperature and oxygen levels. Technical specifications: •Sixteen 1m3 tanks •Eight 750 litre header tanks •Temperature controlled environment (5-20°C) •Controlled light conditions •Gas control systems for CO2 and oxygen

PML has extensive computing facilities, all contained within a dedicated modern computer room. This includes a high throughput computing (HTC) system consisting of 6 redundant master nodes and approximately 140 multi-core compute nodes (giving a total of 720 cores and 2.1TB of RAM) interconnected with fast networking (Gigabit Ethernet) and linked to approximately 3.5 PB of networked storage. In addition, PML has a high performance computing (HPC) cluster. This HPC is comprised of 36 nodes (each more powerful than 4 top-of-the-range desktop computers) connected over a super-fast InfiniBand network with 45 TB of fast-access disk space. Two of the nodes serve as high-memory nodes with 256GB of RAM each. The entire HPC system has 720 cores with 4.8 TB of total RAM which yields 24 teraflops of performance. This state-of-the-art technology is backed by security controlled access, humidity/temperature controls and a fire suppression system to protect crucial data. Storage, networking and key servers are protected by redundant power supplies and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, and all core computing facilities are automatically monitored. PML also operates data services for distributing large volumes of earth observation and modelling data using redundant virtualised web servers, with advanced web visualisation and collaboration tools fostered in an open-source development process.

PML’s state-of-the-art Single Cell Genomics (SCG) Facility represents a significant advance in the molecular analysis of organisms from the environment. The bespoke facility has been designed to allow the direct isolation and characterisation of unicellular organisms and viruses from natural samples. Combining high performance and precision flow cytometry, microfluidics, liquid handling and molecular diagnostic machinery; the facility provides unprecedented genomic resolution to the field of oceanic microbial ecology. Unhindered by issues of non-culturability (a common problem with marine microbes), the SCG represents a paradigm shift in molecular biology and improves resolution of microbial or viral functional capacity and dynamics compared to metagenomic methods. Technical specifications: •Clean room ISO 14644-1 ISO5 (Class 100) •BD Influx Flowcytometer •BioRad QX200 droplet digital PCR •Roche LightCycler480 real time PCR •High-Speed Atomic Force Microscope •Formulatrix Mantis Liquid handling •Hamilton MicroLab Starlet liquid handling •BMG LabTech CLARIOstar platereader